Study on the influence of hydrochemical characteristics on the genesis of intermittent high-temperature geysers in Xizang
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摘要: 西藏地区因独特的地质构造与强烈的地热活动分布着我国著名的间歇性高温喷泉。文章对西藏典型间歇性温泉水化学特征进行了总结，结果显示这类温泉的水化学特征具有高度的相似性：温泉水温度接近当地沸点，pH呈弱碱性，二氧化硅含量较高，阳离子以钾钠为主钙镁含量极低，阴离子以氯根、重碳酸根为主，硫酸根含量较低。基于这些共性，将其命名为高硅碱性热液。热液中高含量的二氧化硅胶体粒子在沉降的过程中降低了钙镁含量；同时高含量的二氧化硅为热液流经的通道和空腔内表面涂覆硅化膜，修复水室中产生的裂隙，为喷发过程提供保压作用；硅化膜的存在也起到了隔热保温的作用，保证了间歇性高温喷泉喷发过程不受外界环境的影响。Abstract:
This study systematically summarizes the hydrochemical characteristics of typical intermittent high-temperature hot springs in Xizang, aiming to clarify the consistent patterns of their fluid composition and the key factors controlling their eruption. Through comprehensive analysis of hydrochemical parameters and graphical classification methods, the results reveal the high degree of similarity in the hydrochemical properties of these hot springs. Specifically, the geothermal water temperature is close to the local boiling point, with weakly alkaline pH. The water exhibits relatively high silica (SiO2) content; cationically, it is dominated by sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+), while calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) contents are extremely low. Anionically, chloride (Cl−) and bicarbonate (${\rm{HCO}}_3^{-}$) are the primary components, with a low sulfate (${\rm{SO}}_4^{2-}$) content. Based on these consistent features, this type of geothermal fluid is formally defined as "high-silica alkaline hydrothermal fluid". Focusing on the main chemical components of the fluid in intermittent high-temperature fountains, this study particularly emphasizes the presence of colloidal silica particles in the hydrothermal fluid and their intrinsic correlation with the formation of silicified films. In terms of hydrochemical composition, the intermittent high-temperature fountains exhibit distinct regularity and uniqueness, which are prominently reflected in their ionic distribution and environmental parameters. From the perspective of cation composition, Na+ and K+ are the dominant species, with their combined proportion accounting for up to 98% of the total cations-establishing them as the absolute main cations. In stark contrast, the proportions of Ca2+ and Mg2+, which are common cations in most geothermal systems, are negligible, typically less than 1%. This significant discrepancy in cation ratios constitutes one of the unique chemical signatures of these fountains. Beyond the aforementioned ionic characteristics, the high SiO2 content and weakly alkaline environment are indispensable properties of the intermittent high-temperature fountains in Xizang.These key factors interact synergistically to shape the unique, iconic hydrochemical composition of Xizang's intermittent high-temperature fountains, i.e., the high-silica alkaline hydrothermal fluid system. To further verify the hydrochemical type and evolutionary stage of the fluid, two standard hydrogeochemical classification tools were employed. On the Piper trilinear diagram (a widely used tool for hydrochemical classification), the cations of this fluid type are concentrated in the Na++K+ corner, while the anions are distributed along the base of the diagram, far from the ${\rm{SO}}_4^{2-}$ axis, which is consistent with the low ${\rm{SO}}_4^{2-}$ content observed in the chemical analysis. On the Na-K-Mg ternary diagram (a critical tool for evaluating geothermal fluid maturity), among the water samples collected from 12 intermittent high-temperature fountains, 10 were classified as partially mature water and 2 as fully mature water; no immature water samples were detected. This result indicates that the geothermal fluid has undergone sufficient water-rock interaction in the subsurface and has not been significantly mixed with shallow, unreacted groundwater, further confirming the deep-origin nature of the fluid. Furthermore, researchers identified that the structure of the groundwater reservoir of intermittent high-temperature fountains is critical to their eruption. For the periodic eruption to occur, the reservoir must maintain excellent airtightness to prevent pressure leakage. This airtightness is primarily attributed to the deposition of the low-permeability coating on the inner surfaces of large fractures or cavities within the reservoir, and the formation of this coating is closely linked to the high SiO2 content in the geothermal water. During the sedimentation process of colloidal silica particles in the hydrothermal fluid, these particles effectively reduce the contents of Ca2+ and Mg2+-likely through adsorption and co-precipitation. In contrast, alkali metal ions (e.g., K+, Na+, Li+, Rb+) are less affected by this process and thus remain relatively enriched in the fluid. Additionally, the high SiO2 content in the hydrothermal fluid promotes the formation of silicified films on the inner surfaces of fluid-flow channels and cavities. These silicified films can repair small fractures generated in the groundwater reservoir, thereby enhancing the reservoir's airtightness and providing effective pressure retention to support the subsequent eruption process. In conclusion, this study clarifies the unique hydrochemical characteristics of intermittent high-temperature hot springs in Xizang and defines the "high-silica alkaline hydrothermal fluid" type, which enriches the classification system of geothermal fluids in high-altitude regions. The analysis of the relationship between colloidal silica, silicified films, and groundwater reservoir airtightness also provides a new mechanistic understanding of the eruption of intermittent high-temperature fountains. These findings can serve as a theoretical basis for further research on geothermal systems in Xizang and other tectonically active, high-altitude areas, as well as for the exploration and utilization of geothermal resources in related regions. -
图 3 间歇性喷泉水在Na-K-Mg三角图上的分布
Figure 3. Na-K-Mg triangle diagram plots of intermittent geyser water
图 5 间歇泉卵、池边硅华、室内模拟硅华圈
Figure 5. Images of geyser egg, silica deposits by the pool and simulated silicon deposits circle
表 1 西藏间歇性喷泉水的水化学特征
Table 1. Hydrochemical characteristics of geyser in Xizang
温泉点 温度/℃ pH Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ SiO2 ${\rm{HCO}}_3^{-}$ ${\rm{SO}}_4^{2-}$ Cl− mg·L−1 羊八井温泉 84 8.6 15.5 0.12 1658 259.1 1509 169 190.4 1973 搭格架温泉 84 8.2 1.7 0.11 398 34.9 310 479 81.0 139 查布温泉 86 9.0 0.1 0.50 379 59.5 280 477 69.5 285 谷露温泉 85 8.7 42.4 4.88 978 138.0 365 1123 80.6 837 古堆温泉 85 8.4 4.7 ＜0.013 789 81.4 306 357 181.8 775 
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表 2 间歇性喷泉水的水化学特征
Table 2. Hydrochemical characteristics of intermittent geyser water
温泉点 温度/℃ pH Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ SiO2 ${\rm{HCO}}_3^{-}$ ${\rm{SO}}_4^{2-}$ Cl− mg·L−1 羊八井温泉 84 8.6 15.5 0.12 1658 259.1 1509 169 190.4 1973 搭格架温泉 84 8.2 1.7 0.11 398 34.9 310 479 81.0 139 查布温泉 86 9.0 0.1 0.50 379 59.5 280 477 69.5 285 谷露温泉 85 8.7 42.4 4.88 978 138.0 365 1123 80.6 837 古堆温泉 85 8.4 4.7 ＜0.013 789 81.4 306 357 181.8 775 邦腊掌温泉 95 9.2 ＜0.5 ＜0.20 213 21.3 172 255 28.8 17 茶洛间歇泉 88 6.9 0.6 ＜0.05 309 28.9 291 405 28.7 36 老忠实温泉 1.2 0.02 403 25.0 356 195 20.0 484 乌姆纳克泉 101 9.2 16.0 0.20 482 36.0 326 66 180.0 623 Alpehue 95 7.8 2.7 ＜0.07 390 23.2 369 99 87.5 395 Whakarewarewa 100 9.2 2.0 0.20 400 54.0 425 100 93.0 554 Geysir 80 9.1 0.8 ＜0.20 232 22.7 502 73 123.0 138
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