Seasonal Evolution and Influencing Factors of Groundwater Chemistry in the Baiquan Spring Area of Jinan

SUN Huichao; ZHANG Hui; SHI Xiao; ZHANG Jingchen; SUN Qingwen; LI Changsuo; ZHANG Wenqiang; YANG Fan; CHENG Shiyue

doi:10.11932/karst2026y038

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Article Navigation > CARSOLOGICA SINICA > 2026 > Accepted Manuscript

SUN Huichao, ZHANG Hui, SHI Xiao, ZHANG Jingchen, SUN Qingwen, LI Changsuo, ZHANG Wenqiang, YANG Fan, CHENG Shiyue. Seasonal Evolution and Influencing Factors of Groundwater Chemistry in the Baiquan Spring Area of Jinan[J]. CARSOLOGICA SINICA. doi: 10.11932/karst2026y038

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Seasonal Evolution and Influencing Factors of Groundwater Chemistry in the Baiquan Spring Area of Jinan

doi: 10.11932/karst2026y038

1.
Shandong Rail Transit Engineering Consulting Co., Ltd., Jinan 250014, China
2.
Jinan Rail Transit Group Construction Investment Co., Ltd., Jinan 250014, China
3.
Shandong Hydrogeology Engineering Geology and Environment Geology Corporation, Ji’nan, 250014, China
4.
Shandong Provincial Geo-mineral Engineering Exploration Institute (801 Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology Brigade, Shandong Provincial Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources) , Jinan 250014, China
5.
School of Water Conservancy and Environment, University of Jinan, Jinan 250022, China

Received Date: 2026-04-10
Accepted Date: 2026-09-21
Rev Recd Date: 2026-09-10

Available Online: 2026-10-15

Abstract

Abstract

The Baiquan spring area in eastern Jinan, China, is an important karst groundwater system and regional water-supply source. However, compared with the well-studied Baotu Spring catchment, seasonal hydrochemical evolution and its controlling mechanisms in the Baiquan spring area remain insufficiently characterized. To clarify the seasonal response of groundwater chemistry and distinguish the effects of natural processes and human activities, 48 groundwater samples were collected in both the dry and wet seasons, yielding 96 samples in total. The samples were mainly obtained from production and domestic wells with depths of approximately 30−450 m. Major hydrochemical parameters, including pH, K⁺, Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Cl⁻, ${\rm{SO}}_4^{2-}$, ${\rm{HCO}}_3^{-}$, ${\rm{NO}}_3^{-}$, and total dissolved solids (TDS), were analyzed. Descriptive statistics, Piper and Gibbs diagrams, ionic ratios, correlation analysis, mineral saturation indices calculated using PHREEQC, factor analysis, and a self-organizing map (SOM) combined with K-means clustering were integrated to identify hydrochemical characteristics, dominant geochemical reactions, seasonal differences, and spatial heterogeneity.Groundwater was generally weakly alkaline and dominated by ${\rm{HCO}}_3^{-}$ and Ca²⁺, with the HCO₃-Ca hydrochemical facies prevailing in both seasons. The mean pH and TDS were 7.74 and 558.5 mg/L in the dry season and 7.28 and 524.4 mg/L in the wet season, respectively, indicating slightly stronger alkalinity and mineralization during the dry season and an overall dilution effect during the wet season. Chloride showed particularly strong spatial variability, with coefficients of variation greater than 1 in both seasons, while ${\rm{SO}}_4^{2-}$ and Na⁺ also displayed marked spatial dispersion. Together with locally elevated ${\rm{SO}}_4^{2-}$ and Cl⁻ concentrations, these patterns indicate spatially heterogeneous groundwater chemistry and external inputs at some locations.The Gibbs diagrams showed that most samples fell within the rock-weathering dominance field, demonstrating that water−rock interaction is the primary control on groundwater chemistry. Ionic relationships further suggested that carbonate dissolution and silicate hydrolysis jointly contribute to the major-ion composition. Mineral saturation calculations revealed clear seasonal changes in carbonate equilibrium. Gypsum and halite remained undersaturated in both seasons. In the dry season, calcite and dolomite were supersaturated, with mean saturation indices of 0.82 and 1.26, respectively. In the wet season, calcite became undersaturated in approximately 12.5% of the samples and dolomite in approximately 25%. This shift suggests that precipitation recharge, likely accompanied by relatively CO₂-rich infiltrating water, enhances carbonate dissolution and changes mineral−water equilibrium. Significant positive correlations of TDS with Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, Cl⁻, ${\rm{SO}}_4^{2-}$, and ${\rm{HCO}}_3^{-}$, together with the strong Ca²⁺−Mg²⁺ relationship, further support the dominant role of mineral dissolution and carbonate weathering in groundwater mineralization.Anthropogenic inputs were also evident. Variations in ${\rm{SO}}_4^{2-}$/Cl⁻ and ${\rm{NO}}_3^{-}$/Cl⁻ molar ratios, together with ion correlations, indicate that ${\rm{SO}}_4^{2-}$ and ${\rm{NO}}_3^{-}$ are influenced by mixed inputs from agricultural fertilizers and urban sources such as domestic sewage and manure. ${\rm{SO}}_4^{2-}$ appears more closely associated with agricultural inputs, whereas increasing Cl⁻ concentrations correspond to a stronger urban pollution signal. Factor analysis further differentiated the controlling processes. In the dry season, three factors explained 79.3% of the total variance: water−rock interaction, a mixed influence of silicate weathering and nitrogen-related anthropogenic input, and cation exchange. In the wet season, three factors explained 71.73% of the variance. Rock weathering remained dominant, while combined natural−anthropogenic effects and a more complex process involving cation exchange and possible sulfate reduction also contributed to groundwater chemistry.The SOM analysis revealed pronounced spatial heterogeneity and seasonal differentiation. Groundwater in both seasons was classified into four hydrochemical clusters. During the dry season, high-mineralization clusters were concentrated mainly in the northern discharge area and adjacent runoff−discharge transition zone, whereas low-mineralization groundwater occurred mainly in the central and southern recharge and runoff zones. This pattern was relatively clear and stable, indicating stronger control by internal groundwater evolution along the regional flow path. During the wet season, high-mineralization groundwater remained concentrated mainly in the northern discharge area, but its spatial distribution became more dispersed, likely because enhanced recharge and mixing weakened the continuity of hydrochemical zones.Overall, groundwater hydrochemistry in the Baiquan spring area is jointly controlled by hydrogeological setting, water−rock interaction, seasonal recharge, and human activities. Natural mineral dissolution determines the basic hydrochemical composition, whereas seasonal precipitation regulates mineral equilibrium, groundwater mixing, and contaminant transport. The northern discharge area is the principal zone of mineralization and hardness accumulation, while the central and southern recharge areas have lower mineralization and greater sensitivity to external disturbance.
- Baiquan spring domain,
- groundwater,
- seasonal changes,
- hydrogeochemical characteristics,
- factor analysis

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Seasonal Evolution and Influencing Factors of Groundwater Chemistry in the Baiquan Spring Area of Jinan

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Seasonal Evolution and Influencing Factors of Groundwater Chemistry in the Baiquan Spring Area of Jinan

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