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Volume 45 Issue 2
Apr.  2026
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Article Navigation >  CARSOLOGICA SINICA  > 2026  >  45(2): 260-270, 281
ZHANG Ting, DAI Qunwei, WANG Jiani, CAI Jiangrong, DU Xunqiu, WANG Guoyue, LI Qiongfang, DONG Faqin. Hydrodynamic controls on differential travertine deposition: A case study of Huanglong Scenic Area, Sichuan, China[J]. CARSOLOGICA SINICA, 2026, 45(2): 260-270, 281. doi: 10.11932/karst2025y14
Citation: ZHANG Ting, DAI Qunwei, WANG Jiani, CAI Jiangrong, DU Xunqiu, WANG Guoyue, LI Qiongfang, DONG Faqin. Hydrodynamic controls on differential travertine deposition: A case study of Huanglong Scenic Area, Sichuan, China[J]. CARSOLOGICA SINICA, 2026, 45(2): 260-270, 281. doi: 10.11932/karst2025y14
shu

Hydrodynamic controls on differential travertine deposition: A case study of Huanglong Scenic Area, Sichuan, China

doi: 10.11932/karst2025y14
  • 1.

    School of Environment and Resources, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, Sichuan 621010, China

  • 2.

    Huanglong National Scenic Resort Administrative Bureau, Songpan, Sichuan 623300, China

  • 3.

    School of Life Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, Sichuan 621010, China

  • Received Date: 2025-02-11
  • Accepted Date: 2026-04-22
  • Rev Recd Date: 2026-03-28
    Abstract
  • Travertine deposition is governed by a complex interplay of physical, chemical, and biological factors, among which hydrodynamic conditions are widely recognized as a key control fatcor on CO2 degassing efficiency and calcite precipitation rate. However, a systematic understanding of how hydrodynamic differences across distinct geomorphological units regulate the entire chain from CO2 degassing to calcite deposition characteristics remains insufficient. To address this issue, the Huanglong World Natural Heritage Site in Sichuan Province, southwestern China, at elevations of 3,000 to 3,600 m above sea level, was selected as the study area. Huanglong is renowned for its actively depositing travertine landscape, which encompasses diverse geomorphological units-sheet flows, rimstone dams, pools, mounds, and waterfalls-distributed along a valley approximately 3.6 km in length. CO2-rich groundwater emerges from springs at the valley head and flows downstream over the travertine surface, undergoing progressive CO2 degassing and CaCO3 precipitation. Two representative and contrasting geomorphological units-gentle slopes with sheet flow characteristics (slope<15°) and curved convex features on steep slopes (slope>20°)-were selected as research objects.An integrated approach combining Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation, systematic hydrochemical monitoring along flow paths, and in-situ deposition experiments was employed. Three-dimensional terrain models of typical gentle slopes and steep slopes were constructed from high-resolution topographic survey data and served as the geometric basis for CFD simulations, validated against field-measured flow velocities. Water samples were collected at 21 stations along a 500 m gentle slope transect and at paired landing-point and jumping-point locations across successive steep slopes. Major hydrochemical parameters including Ca2+, ${\rm{HCO}}_3^{-}$, pH, Ec, pCO2, and the calcite Saturation Index (SIc) were determined. Additionally, glass deposition slides were deployed in situ at representative positions within both areas for five days and examined by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to characterize the mineralogy, morphology, and biological content of newly formed precipitates.Hydrodynamic simulations revealed pronounced contrasts between the two units. The gentle slope area exhibited flow velocities of 0.52 to 3.07 m·s−1 with a thin water layer; turbulence was primarily triggered by micro-topographic features on the bed surface formed by earlier travertine deposition. The steep slope area displayed higher velocities of 1.32 to 4.15 m·s−1, where the distinctive semi-circular arcuate convex morphology of successive crests drove continuous hydraulic jumps. Hydraulic head, velocity, and turbulent kinetic energy at landing points significantly exceeded those at jumping points, indicating that the most intense hydrodynamic action concentrates at landing points. Topographic gradient constitutes the fundamental cause of hydrodynamic differentiation between the two geomorphological units.Hydrochemical monitoring demonstrated that contrasting hydrodynamic conditions directly control CO2 degassing efficiency and the spatial pattern of water chemistry evolution. In the gentle slope area, Ca2+ concentration decreased by 43.5 mg·L−1 over the 500 m transect, accompanied by a gradual pH increase of 0.26 and progressive pCO2 decline; all SIc values exceeded 1, indicating sustained calcite oversaturation and a mild, gradual degassing process. Regression analysis revealed that the hydraulic gradient exhibited a strong positive correlation with Ca2+ concentration, far exceeding that of elevation alone, identifying it as the key hydrodynamic parameter governing travertine deposition intensity. In the steep slope area, ${\rm{HCO}}_3^{-}$ concentration displayed a characteristic zigzag decline: at each successive crest, the jumping-point concentration was consistently lower than that at the upstream landing point, directly evidencing rapid, pulsed CO2 degassing driven by hydraulic jumps across very short distances. Comparison across different slope gradients confirmed that steeper terrain corresponds to higher flow velocity, more vigorous degassing, and greater reductions in Ca2+ and ${\rm{HCO}}_3^{-}$ per unit distance.In-situ deposition experiments provided direct evidence linking hydrodynamic intensity to depositional characteristics. Steep slope area slides exhibited the most abundant calcite precipitation, with crystals densely packed into thick compact layers, reflecting high-intensity inorganic chemical precipitation driven by rapid CO2 degassing. Gentle slope flow slides showed comparatively sparse precipitation, with notable aggregated co-precipitation of calcite with diatoms and filamentous algae, indicating significant microbial participation under weaker hydrodynamic conditions. Downstream gentle slope flow slides displayed minimal precipitation, consistent with progressive ion consumption.This study establishes a complete control pathway, "topography-hydrodynamic conditions-CO2 degassing efficiency-calcite precipitation rate and deposition characteristics". Stronger hydrodynamic conditions enhance CO2 degassing and inorganic chemical precipitation while suppressing microbial colonization through continuous scouring, producing dense, inorganically dominated deposits. Conversely, weaker hydrodynamic conditions reduce chemical driving forces while providing stable environments favorable for microbial participation, yielding biologically influenced, less compact deposits. A positive feedback loop between deposition and topography continuously reinforces the distinctive characteristics of each unit. These findings provide a process-based framework for interpreting travertine spatial heterogeneity and a theoretical foundation for utilizing depositional density and structure as sedimentological indicators of paleo-hydrodynamic environments.

     

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