Development characteristics and controlling factors of red-bed karst in the southern section of Longmen Mountain at the edge of Sichuan Basin
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摘要: 侏罗纪至白垩纪期间，四川盆地西缘龙门山前沉积了一套陆相红色盆地沉积物，岩性以泥钙质胶结的砂（砾）岩为主。该套岩层在地下水溶蚀作用下，发育有规模宏大的洼地、数千米水平溶洞等岩溶现象，对研究区水库、隧洞等工程建设构成重大威胁。文章在已有地质、水文地质工作基础上，结合地面调查、岩矿鉴定等技术手段，从宏观构造演变、沉积环境、水动力条件及微观矿物成分、胶结特征等多角度出发，综合研究砂（砾）岩溶蚀发育特征及控制因素。结果表明：研究区地表、地下均有典型岩溶现象发育，显示出溶蚀空间主要顺层面发育、局部沿优势节理面垂向扩展的规律，区内岩溶强发育区、中等以及弱发育区面积占比为1∶2∶7；复杂多变的沉积环境导致了研究区岩性和岩组结构的时空差异，是控制红层岩溶发育位置及强度的根本内因；气候、地形地貌、地质构造等控制下的水动力条件是影响岩溶发育的重要外因，影响红层岩溶的延伸方向及发育规模；新构造运动稳定与隆升的间歇发生导致了不同时期形成的溶洞在垂向上呈层状发育。Abstract:
During the Jurassic to Cretaceous periods, a set of continental red basin sediments were deposited in front of Longmen Mountain on the western margin of the Sichuan Basin. The predominant lithology consisted of mud-calcium cemented sandstone (conglomerate). Under the action of groundwater dissolution, the rock layer has been developed with large-scale karst phenomena, including depressions and extensive horizontal karst caves that extend thousands of meters. These features pose a major threat to the safety of constructing reservoirs and tunnels in the study area. Based on existing geological and hydrogeological investigations, combined with ground surveys, and identification of rock and mineral types, this study examines the development characteristics and controlling factors of sandstone (conglomerate) dissolution from multiple perspectives. These perspectives include macroscopic structural evolution, sedimentary environment, hydrodynamic conditions, microscopic mineral composition, and cementing characteristics. The main conclusions of this study are as follows. The karst forms developed on the surface of the study area mainly include karst depressions, karst hills, sinkholes, stone teeth, karst valleys, karst fissures, and karst gullies. In the conglomerate area, circular depressions resulting from collapses are often formed on the surface, with sinkholes frequently developing at the base. In contrast, the sandstone area is typically eroded by surface water along joints and fissures, leading to the formation of long troughs or irregular corrosion funnels. The underground karst phenomenon is characterized by karst caves, which contain deposits such as stalactites, stone mantles, and stone flowers. These karst deposits are relatively rare and often impure, primarily consisting of gray muddy calcareous mixture that is mainly composed of calcium carbonate mixed with clay materials. The entire karst phenomenon exhibits the features typical of early-stage karst landforms, which can be classified as either red-bed karst landforms or sandy gravel karst landforms. The karst phenomenon is mainly developed along the bedding plane in the trend of rock formations, and secondarily in the dip direction. The local extension direction is controlled by the joints and fissures. In the areas with strong karst development, the lithology of the strata is dominated by calcareous conglomerate of the Guankou formation (K2g) and the Tianmashan formation (K1t). The karst morphology is diverse and of large scale, often featuring a complete set of karst systems, developed with vertical recharge and horizontal discharge. In the areas with moderate karst development, the lithology consists of calcareous conglomerate of the Guankou formation (K2g) and the Tianmashan formation (K1t), conglomerate of the Mingshan formation (E1-2m), and sandstone of the Shaximiao formation (J2s) and the Penglai formation (J3p). In this area, karst fissures and pores are widely developed, with visible karst caves and small-scale karst pipelines. The depth of horizontal karst development is generally less than 100 meters. In the areas of weak karst development, the main lithology is dominated by conglomerate of the Mingshan formation (E1-2m), and sandstone and mudstone of the Jiaguan formation (K2j), the Shaximiao formation (J2s), and the Shaximiao formation (J3p). The main karst phenomena are karst fissures and pores developed along the bedding plane or dominant joints. The sedimentary environment is the fundamental internal factor controlling karst development. The complex and variable sedimentary environment has led to differences in lithology and structures of rock groups in both the planar and vertical directions within the study area, which in turn control the location and intensity of red-bed karst development. The provenance of Mesozoic and part of Paleozoic carbonate rocks in the north–west of the study area ensured the solubility of sandy conglomerate in the area. The alluvial fan sediments corresponding to the three intense tectonic phases during the Yanshanian Period are manifested as areas with strong karst development. Differences in lithology lead to variations in soluble mineral contents, showing a trend of gradually decreasing solubility from calcareous conglomerate to conglomeratic sandstone, then to siltstone, and finally to mudstone, accompanied by a corresponding weakening of karst action. Hydrodynamic conditions under the control of climate, topography, and geological structures are important external factors affecting karst development. The warm and humid climate in the study area provides abundant recharge and erosion capacity for groundwater. The landform and strong tectonic action control the scale and extension direction of red-bed karst development. During the Neotectonic Movement, intermittent uplift and stability have resulted in a multi-layered karst system in the study area, which corresponds, to some extent, with the multi-tiered river terraces. -
图 5 节理走向玫瑰图(a)与倾角分布直方图(b)
Figure 5. Rose diagram of joint orientation (a) and histogram of dip angle distribution (b)
图 8 古龙门山前沉积环境示意图
Figure 8. Schematic diagram of sedimentary environment of the ancient Longmen Mountain
图 9 晚白垩世灌口期岩相古地理变化图
Figure 9. Paleogeographic changes in lithofacies during the late Cretaceous Guankou Period
图 10 研究区后段岩溶现象发育情况
Figure 10. Development of karst in the posterior segment of the study area
图 11 新构造运动下地貌及岩溶现象的分层性
Figure 11. Stratification of landforms and karst phenomena caused by Neotectonic Movement
表 1 研究区典型溶洞发育特征一览表
Table 1. List of typical karst caves in the study area
野外编号 位置 地层岩性
（产状）洞口高程
/m与河水面高
差/m发育方向 发育形态 K01 灵关镇南侧灵关河右岸 K2g砾岩
(145°∠22°)820 50 NE18° 溶洞可探延伸约30 m，发育暗河往灵关河方向排泄，洞底有块石及黏土堆积物 K02 仁加乡北侧西川河右岸大飞水 K2g砾岩
(189°∠30°)930 40 SE95° 泉水排泄口，可探延伸约80 m，洞径5~7 m，枯期流量3.8 L·s−1，丰期流量可达162 L·s−1 K04 龙门乡北东侧玉溪河右岸 K2g砾岩
(145°∠22°)812 1 SE95° 泉水排泄口，丰水期泉口位于玉溪河河面以下，丰枯流量动态变化大 K05 龙门乡龙门溶洞 K2g砾岩
(218°∠26°)1004 192 SE135° 洞径1~20 m，洞内四通八达，可探延伸数千米，内有暗河、多层洞水空间发育 K08 宝盛乡北侧半山坡 E1-2m砾岩
(104°∠32°)1113 272 SE108° 可探延伸约50 m，洞径3~6 m，洞内有常流水，丰枯流量动态变化大 K10 出江镇南侧半山坡仙宝洞 J2s砾岩、粉砂质泥岩
(95°∠12°)980 227 NE31° 可探延伸660 m，洞径2~15 m，洞壁为粉砂质泥岩，上部见砾岩，洞底有堆积物，洞内有水流持续流动 K11 出江镇出江河右岸 J2s含砾砂岩
(285°∠8°)756 3 NE7° 泉水排泄口，丰水期泉口位于出江河河面以下，丰枯流量动态变化大 
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表 2 红层岩溶发育强度分级表
Table 2. Classification for the degree of development intensity of red-bed karst
岩溶发
育强度特征 参考指标 地表岩溶发育
密度/个·km−2钻孔岩溶
率/%泉流量/
L·s−1单位涌水量
L·(s·m)−1强 砾岩连续厚度较大，出露面积较广，地表常发育成片洼地、落水洞，地下溶洞发育，多岩溶大泉和暗河，岩溶发育深度较大 ＞5 ＞10 ＞100 ＞1 中 以砾岩为主，多间夹型，地表有洼地、落水洞发育，地下洞穴通道不多，岩溶大泉数量较少，深部岩溶不发育 1~5 3~10 10~100 0.1~1 弱 以钙质砂岩夹砾岩，或含砾钙质砂岩为主，多间夹型或者互夹型，地表岩溶形态稀疏发育，地下洞穴较少，岩溶大泉及暗河少见 ＜1 ＜3 ＜10 ＜0.1
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表 3 岩矿鉴定结果表
Table 3. Results of rock-mineral identification
样品编号 定名 与稀盐酸反应 矿物成分及大致含量/% 简述 显微照相 DGS-02 复成分粗—中砾岩(K2g) 剧烈冒泡 砾石76
填隙物：岩屑13、石英1、方解石7、褐铁矿2、长石少量、黏土少量、金属矿物少量砾石主要由微晶灰岩、生物碎屑砂屑灰岩、石英砂岩、泥晶灰岩等组成，呈椭圆状、透镜状、不规则状，粒径2~54 mm；填隙物中岩屑成分与砾石成分同源，呈椭圆状、长条状、不规则状 
LH-01 钙质中—细粒长石石英砂岩
(J2s)剧烈冒泡 碎屑：石英47、岩屑3、长石5、云母微量
填隙物：方解石38、黏土矿物6、金属矿物1碎屑中以单晶石英为主，岩屑主要为灰岩和泥板岩岩屑，长石主要为斜长石；填隙物主要为亮晶方解石，与黏土矿物混杂；黏土矿物均匀星散分布；基底式胶结，胶结物支撑 
CJ-06 含钙粉砂质泥岩(J3sn) 冒泡 泥质：黏土27、绢云母4、微粒石英7、海绿石、绿泥石少量
砂质：石英17、岩屑6、云母2、方解石14、白云石9、褐铁矿12、金属矿物1泥质黏土呈分散状，海绿石、绿泥石呈鳞片状，多呈点状集合体，不均匀分布；砂质石英部分具波状消光，岩屑主要为硅质岩、微晶灰岩、泥岩岩屑，云母主要为白云母碎片，砂质呈棱角状，点状分布 
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表 4 研究区主要河流阶地特征表
Table 4. Characteristics of main river terraces in the study area
河流名称 河面高程/m 阶地位置 阶地级序 拔河高度/m ESR年龄 灵关河 664 思延乡铜头村 Ⅰ级阶地 12.1 1.23×104a Ⅱ级阶地 26.0 6.48×104a Ⅲ级阶地 67.7 12.57×104a 710 禾林村 Ⅳ级阶地 110.0 27.90×104a Ⅴ级阶地 210.0 74.07×104a 玉溪河 760 龙门乡 Ⅰ级阶地 4.0 − Ⅱ级阶地 18.5 − 出江河 692 出江镇中坝村 Ⅰ级阶地 3.0 − Ⅱ级阶地 23.0 − Ⅲ级阶地 88.0 − Ⅳ级阶地 116.0 − 注：表中ESR年龄数据来源于文献[33]。
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