越南岩溶地质概况

韦延兰; 李文莉; 黄晨晖; 周立新; 杨象鹏

doi:10.11932/karst20240206

越南岩溶地质概况

doi: 10.11932/karst20240206

韦延兰^{1, 2,},
李文莉^{1, 2, ,},
黄晨晖^{1, 2},
周立新^{1, 2},
杨象鹏^{1, 2}

1.
中国地质科学院岩溶地质研究所/自然资源部、广西岩溶动力学重点实验室/联合国教科文组织国际岩溶研究中心, 广西桂林 541004
2.
广西平果喀斯特生态系统国家野外科学观测研究站, 广西平果 531406

基金项目: 中国地质科学院岩溶地质研究所基本科研业务费（2002372017001）

详细信息

作者简介:
韦延兰（1987－），女，工程师，研究方向：岩溶地质。E-mail：weiyanlan@mail.cgs.gov.cn

通讯作者:
李文莉（1987－），男，副研究员，研究方向：岩溶地质。E-mail：liwenli@mail.cgs.gov.cn。

中图分类号: P642.25
计量
- 文章访问数: 56
- HTML浏览量: 13
- PDF下载量: 34
- 被引次数: 0
出版历程
- 收稿日期: 2022-11-20
- 网络出版日期: 2024-07-10
- 刊出日期: 2024-04-30

Overview on karst geology of Vietnam

WEI Yanlan^{1, 2
,},
LI Wenli^{1, 2
, ,},
HUANG Chenhui^{1, 2},
ZHOU Lixin^{1, 2},
YANG Xiangpeng^{1, 2}

1.
Institute of Karst Geology, CAGS/Key Laboratory of Karst Dynamics, MNR & GZAR/International Research Center on Karst under the Auspices of UNESCO, Guilin, Guangxi 541004, China
2.
Pingguo Guangxi, Karst Ecosystem, National Observation and Research Station, Pingguo, Guangxi, 531406, China

摘要

摘要: 越南岩溶发育面积大，岩溶地质有关研究比较广泛，为了更全面地掌握越南岩溶地质的研究成果，本文综合分析前人研究成果，结合遥感资料、地质图、洞穴图集等有关资料，编制越南岩溶地质分布图，结合地质构造、岩性组合、水文气候、生物活动等特征分析岩溶作用的背景条件，总结越南岩溶地质、地貌特征和岩溶分布规律，为“全球岩溶地质”数据库提供基础支持。越南岩溶分布面积60 000 km²，占国土面积的20%，主要分布在越南的北部和中部，南部有零星分布，发育峰丛、峰林、岩溶盆地、洞穴等岩溶景观。多期构造运动、厚层石炭系－二叠系、三叠系纯石灰岩、温润多雨的热带季风气候、活跃的生物活动均有利于岩溶作用的发生。越南岩溶属于典型的热带岩溶，与中国南部岩溶具相似的起源。
- 越南 /
- 岩溶地质 /
- 岩溶景观 /
- 岩溶资源
Abstract: Karst is widely distributed in Vietnam, covering almost 60,000 km², approximately 20% of the total area of Vietnam. Most karst rocks crop out in North and Central Vietnam. Karst developed with peak-clusters, peak-forests, caves, etc. is sparsely distributed in the south of Vietnam. Based on previous research, the geological map of karst distribution in Vietnam was drawn up, combined with remote sensing image, geological map, and cave atlas. In terms of geological structure, lithology combination, hydroclimate in Vietnam, conditions of karstification in this country were analyzed. From the perspective of regional geology, the characteristics of karst geology and geomorphology, karst distribution and the present situation of karst resources in Vietnam were investigated. Karst in Vietnam is distributed in the tropical karst belt, with similar origins of karst in South China. The distribution law of karst in Vietnam is mainly controlled by stratigraphic lithology and tectonic movement. Karst is developed in all the pre-Cambrian and Holocene strata and the pure limestone strata of Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic with a thickness of 1,000–2,000 m are the main beds of karst development. The warm and rainy climate and rich biological diversity accelerate karstification. There are four major karst zones in Vietnam, including peak-clusters and peak-forests in the northeast, peak-forests in Ha Long Bay and karst mountain along Truong Son Ra karst in the northwest. The karst area in northeast is an extension of the karst from South China, with the development of alpine karst landforms, peak-forests, peak-clusters, large drainage gullies and sinkholes. Sinkholes are extremely developed, with an average 1.4 sinkholes per square kilometer. The karst landforms vary from plateaus to depressions and hills and finally to plains from northwest to southeast, showing a complete evolution of tropical karst geomorphology. There are karst landforms such as large and deep poljes, deep gullies and caves. The vertical distance of Conh Nuoc cave, the deepest cave, is 600 m. The peak-forest along Ha Long Bay is an extension of the peak-forest of South China. In the central part, karst is distributed along the Truong Son Ra. Phong Nha Cave currently known as the longest cave in Vietnam is located in the famous karst area of Phong Nha-Ke Bang. The Phong Nha cave system is composed of 20 caves, more than 60 km in length, where is located the longest river cave and the cave with the largest passage in the world. Vietnam is rich in karst water, karst mineral and karst landscape resources. At present, karst water has become the main water source for industry, agriculture and life in Vietnam, but water supply is in serious shortage, especially in the dry season. Vietnam is at an advanced level in the exploitation of karst mineral resources and is currently the eighth largest cement producer in the world. Remarkable achievements have been made in balancing regional economic development and ecological protection, and a series of world geological heritage reserves and national ecological reserves have been established in karst areas.
- Vietnam /
- karst geology /
- karst landscape /
- karst resources

HTML

图 1 越南地质简图（a）和越南构造单元划分图（b）^[70−73]

Figure 1. Geological sketch map (a) and structure map (b) of Vietnam

下载: 全尺寸图片幻灯片

图 2 越南岩溶地质分布图^{[9−10，20，70−71]}

Figure 2. Karst areas in strata of Vietnam

下载: 全尺寸图片幻灯片

图 3 Hang Son Doong 洞穴^[89]

Figure 3. Side view of Hang Son Doong cave

下载: 全尺寸图片幻灯片

图 4 Cong Nuoc 洞穴^[87]

Figure 4. Side view of Cong Nuoc cave

下载: 全尺寸图片幻灯片

表 1 越南碳酸盐岩地层表^[20，60]

Table 1. Carbonate formation of Vietnam

序号	地层名称	地层年代	厚度/m	分布区域	特点
1	Banhat Tule	白垩系	70~100	莱州省（Lai Chau）河江省（Hà Giang）与安沛省(Yên Bái)交界处	石灰岩透镜体
2	Suoibe	侏罗系	150	莱州省（Lai Chau）	角砾状－块状石灰岩
3	Muongtrai	三叠系	200~500	山罗省（Son La）	浅灰色－灰色层状、透镜状石灰岩
4	Dong Giao	三叠系	1 000~ 2 000	莱州省（Lai Chau）、山罗省（Son La）和平省（ Hòa Bình）、清化省（ Thanh Hóa）	石灰岩，细粒结构
5	Nam Tham	三叠系	600	河江省（Hà Giang）、高平省（Cao Bang）	石灰岩
6	Yenduyet Vienam	二叠系	100~150	清化省（ Thanh Hóa）、莱州省（Lai Chau）山罗省（Son La）、河江省（Hà Giang）高平省（Cao Bang）	石灰岩透镜体
7	Bac son	石炭系－二叠系	1 000 ~ 1 500	河江省（Hà Giang）、高平省（Cao Bang）谅山省（Lang Son）、莱州省（Lai Chau）义安省（ Nghệ Anị）、广平省（Quang Binh）	厚层，块状石灰岩
8	Bancai	泥盆系	700~1 300	河静省(Hà Tĩnh)、广平省（Quang Binh）广治省（ Quảng Trị）	石灰岩、燧石石灰岩
9	Banpap	泥盆系	700~900	河江省（Hà Giang）、高平省（Cao Bang）	细粒石灰岩夹白云质灰岩
10	Banguon	泥盆系	320~600	莱州省（Lai Chau）	石灰岩
11	Suoitra	泥盆系	400~600	河江省（Hà Giang）、高平省（Cao Bang）宣光省（Tuyen Quang）、山罗省（Son La）	石灰岩透镜体
12	Bohieng	志留系－泥盆系	200~500	莱州省（Lai Chau）西部和北部、河江省（Hà Giang）宣光省（Tuyen Quang）和义安省（ Nghệ Anị）	薄层石灰岩、石灰岩透镜体
13	Paham	奥陶系－泥盆系	100	莱州省（Lai Chau）	石灰岩
14	Sinhvinh	奥陶系－志留系	100~500	河江省（Hà Giang）、宣光省（Tuyen Quang）北部太原省（Thái Nguyên），义安省（ Nghệ Anị）至广治省（ Quảng Trị）一带	石灰岩
15	Langvac	寒武系	80	义安省（ Nghệ Anị）、广治省（ Quảng Trị）	细粒薄层石灰岩、石灰岩透镜体
16	Dienlu Changpung	寒武系	600~750	高平省（Cao Bang）、谅山省（Lang Son）	石灰岩
17	Modong Sonma Ha Giang	寒武系	100~200	河江省（Hà Giang）	石灰岩
18	Sapa,Deosen	前寒武	200~300	老街省（Lào Cai）北部和莱州省（Lai Chau）	白云质灰岩

下载: 导出CSV

表 2 越南主要岩溶区年平均降雨量和湿度(2009—2019年)^[74]：

Table 2. Annual average rainfall (mm/a) and average moisture (%) in karst areas of Vietnam (2009—2019)

序号	地区	降雨量/mm·a^-1	湿度/%
1	莱州省（Lai Chau）	2 408.37	81.91
2	山罗省（Son La）	1 359.35	79.09
3	宣光省（Tuyen Quang）	1 653.85	80.99
4	河内（Ha Noi）	1 641.75	76.91
5	下龙湾（Bai Chay）	2 090.96	82.37
6	南定省（Nam Dinh）	1 679.01	82.74
7	义安省（ Nghệ Anị）	2 120.94	82.38
8	广治省（ Quảng Trị）	3 014.76	86.48
9	Da Nang	2 425.03	80.55
10	广平省（Quang Binh）	2 250.00	84.00

下载: 导出CSV

表 3 峰衙－克榜（Phong Nha-Ke Bang）自然遗产区植物群^[75−76]

Table 3. List of flora at Phong Nha-Ke Bang Natural Heritage

Taxon分类	Family科	Genus属	Species种
Psilotophyta	1	1	1
Lycopodiophyta	2	4	16
Equisetophyta	1	1	2
Polypodiophyta	23	73	176
Pinophyta	6	10	19
Magnoliophyta	160	817	2 437
− Magnoliopsida	131	638	1 909
− Liliopsida	29	179	528
Total总量	193	906	2 651

下载: 导出CSV

表 4 峰衙-克榜（Phong Nha-Ke Bang）自然遗产区动物群^[76]

Table 4. List of fauna at Phong Nha-Ke Bang Natural Heritage

分类Taxon	目Orders	Families科	Species种
哺乳动物 Mammal	11	32	154
鸟类 Bird	18	57	338
爬行动物 Reptile	2	17	100
两栖动物 Amphibian	2	08	51
鱼类 Fish	10	38	215
总量 Total	43	152	858

下载: 导出CSV

表 5 越南已知长度超过4 km的洞穴^[83]

Table 5. The longest cave of Vietnam

序号	洞穴名称	位置	长度/m
1	Hang Khe Rhy	Quang Binh	18 902
2	Hang Vom	Quang Binh	15 760
3	Hang Co Ban	Son La	8 500
4	Hang Phong Nha	Quang Binh	8 329
5	Hang Son Doong	Quang Binh	7 678
6	Nguon Ban San	Lang Son	5 416
7	Ngoum Sap	Cao Bang	5 379
8	Hang Toi	Quang Binh	5 258
9	Khpang Cave	Hoa Binh	5 000
10	Hang Cha Lo	Quang Binh	4 483
11	Ban Chang-Rang Kieo-Ban Ngam System	Cao Bang Province	4 100

下载: 导出CSV

表 7 Phong Nha洞穴系统^[88]

Table 7. Cave system of Phong Nha

序号	洞穴名称	位置	长度/m
1	Hang Phong Nha cave	Son Trach	8 329
2	Hang Toi cave	Son Trach	5 258
3	Hang E cave cave	Thuong Trach	845
4	Hang Cha An cave	Thuong Trach	667
5	Hang Thung cave	Thuong Trach	3 351
6	Hang En cave	Thuong Trach	2 490
7	Hang Khe tien cave	Thuong Trach	520
8	Hang Khe Ry cave	Thuong Trach	18 902
9	Hang Khe Thi cave	Thuong Trach	35
10	Dry Phong Nha cave	Thuong Trach	981
11	Hang Lanh cave	Thuong Trach	3 753
12	Hang Doi cave	Thuong Trach	539
13	Hang Nuoc Nut cave	Thuong Trach	2 205
14	Hang So Doi cave	Thuong Trach	1 124
15	Hang Ca cave	Thuong Trach	361
16	Hang Cay Nghien cave	Thuong Trach	162
17	Hang Lau cave	Thuong Trach	481
18	Hang Moi cave	Thuong Trach	408.2
19	Hang Va	Thuong Trach	1 686
20	Hang Son Soong	Thuong Trach	7 680

下载: 导出CSV

表 6 越南最深洞穴^[83]

Table 6. The deepest cave of Vietnam

序号	洞穴名称	位置	垂直深度/m
1	Cong Nuoc	Lai Chau	−600
2	Basta Noodles	Ha Giang	−528
3	Hang Son Doong	Quang Binh	−449
4	Ta Chinh	Lai Chau	−402
5	Hang Ong	Quang Binh	−368
6	Hang Lau	Quang Binh	−354
7	Xa Lung 2	Ha Giang	−340
8	Hang Vuc Tang	Quang Binh	−325
9	Meo Vong 1	Ha Giang	−306
10	Yen Chow Do	Lai Chau	−301
11	Mu Cai Shaft	Cao Bang	−300

下载: 导出CSV

参考文献(105)

[1]	韦延兰,李文莉,杨象鹏,周立新.泰国岩溶地质概述[J].中国岩溶,2021,40(6):1077-1091. WEI Yanlan, LI Wenli, YANG Xiangpeng, Zhou Lixin. Overview on karst geological of Thailand[J]. Carsologica Sinica, 2021, 40(6): 1077-1091.
[2]	何师意, 袁道先, Do Tuyet. 越南北部岩溶特征及其相关环境问题[J]. 中国岩溶, 1999, 18(1):89-94. HE Shiyi, YUAN Daoxian, Do Tuyet. Characteristics of karst in Northern Vietnam and its relevant environmental problems[J]. Carsologica Sinica, 1999, 18(1): 89-94.
[3]	Fromaget J. L'Indochine francaise, sa structure géologique, ses roches, ses mines et leurs relations possibles avec la tectonique[J]. Bull. Serv. Géol. Indochine, XXVI, fasc, 1941, 2: 140.
[4]	Hoang Thieu Son. General geography, Vol. Ⅱ-Karst[M]. Education Pub., 1965.
[5]	Birot P. Problems of karst morphology of Annam[J]. Ann. Géogr. , LXⅢ, 1954: 337.
[6]	Zubashenko M A. Vaprosy razvitya karsta servernego Vietnam (Problems of the development of karst in Vietnam)[J]. Gidrogeologia I karstovyedenye, 1964, 2: 157-168.
[7]	Fridland V M. Nature of the soils in North Vietnam[M]. Vietnam: Science-Technology Publishing House, 1961.
[8]	Glazek J. On the karst phenomena in North Vietnam[J]. Academ. Polon. Sci. , Ser. Sci. Geol. Geogr, 1966, 14(1): 45-51.
[9]	Nang D T. Karstic landforms in Vietnam[M]. Vietnam: Science-Technology Publishing House, 1979.
[10]	Khang P. The development of karst landscapes in Vietnam[J]. Acta Geologica Polonica, 1985, 35: 305-324.
[11]	Cilek V. Some remarks on the karst in Vietnam, especially in Thanh Hoa Province[J]. Speleoforum, 1988: 78-80.
[12]	Van 'Tan Ha. Nouvelles recherches préhistoriques et prohohistoriques au Vietnam[J]. Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient, 1980, 68: 113-154.
[13]	Joachim H, Herbert U. Menschwerdung-Biotischer und gesellschaftlicher Entwicklungsprozess[M]. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1985.
[14]	Simon E. Desciption d'un Arachnide cavernicole du Tonkin[J]. Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France, 1906, 11(2): 27.
[15]	Rehn J A G. Description of five new species of Orthoptera from Tonkin[J]. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1906, 58 (2): 279-292.
[16]	Lindberg K. Revue des recherches biospéologiques en Asie moyenne et dans le sud du continent asiatique[J]. Rassegna Speleol. Ital, 1960, 12(2): 43-50.
[17]	Pham Khang. Présentation des régions karstiques du Vietnam[J]. Karstologia, 1991, 18(2): 1-12.
[18]	Dieu N T. Geography of Vietnam[M]. Gioi, Italy: Gioi Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1992: 182.
[19]	Do Tuyet. Characters of karst in north-west of Vietnam. In selected works on tropical karst study of Vietnam[M]. 1993: 41-44.
[20]	Do Tuyet. Overview on karst of Viet Nam. In: Global karst correlation[M]. Beijing: Science Press, 1998: 179-192.
[21]	Fénart P, Cat N N, Drogue C, Canh D V, Pistre S. Fracturation et karstification des formations calcaires de la baie d'Halong, Vietnam[J]. Karst & Tectonics, 1998: 75-78.
[22]	Do Tuyet. Characteristics of karst ecosystems of Vietnam and their vulnerability to human impact[J]. Acta Geologica Sinica, 2001, 75(3): 325-329. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-6724.2001.tb00539.x
[23]	Quan N V, Duc T T, Van H D. Landscapes and ecosystems of tropical limestone: Case study of the Cat Ba Islands, Vietnam[J]. Journal of Ecology & Environment, 2010, 33(1): 23-36.
[24]	Tao N D. Some data on diversity of aquatic plants and animals in karst area of Ninh Binh Province[C]//Proceedings of the 4^th National scientific conference on Ecology and Biological Resource, Hanoi, 2011.
[25]	Cat N N. Carbonate rocks and karst waters in Vietnam[J]. Cave & Karst Science, 1994, 21(1): 7.
[26]	Masschelein J, Swennen R. Rural development in the mountain karst area of N. W. Vietnam by sustainable water and land management and social learning: Its conditions and facilitation[M]. Project Proposal, 1997: 40.
[27]	Tam V T, Vu T, Batelaan O. Hydrogeological characteristics of a karst mountainous catchment in the northwest of Vietnam[J]. Acta Geologica Sinica, 2001(3): 26-34.
[28]	Nguyet V, Goldscheider N. Tracer tests, hydrochemical and microbiological investigations as a basis for groundwater protection in a remote tropical mountainous karst area, Vietnam[J]. Hydrogeology Journal, 2006, 14(7): 1147-1159. doi: 10.1007/s10040-006-0038-z
[29]	Vu T T, Batelaan O. A multi-analysis remote-sensing approach for mapping groundwater resources in the karstic Meo Vac Valley, Vietnam[J]. Hydrogeology Journal, 2011, 19: 275-287. doi: 10.1007/s10040-010-0684-z
[30]	Lam N V, Ngoc N K, Hoang H V, Tuan N T, Nga N T. Characteristics of groundwater in karstic region in Northeastern Vietnam[J]. Environ Earth Sciences, 2013, 70: 501-510. doi: 10.1007/s12665-012-1548-8
[31]	Nguyen N T, Pham N H, Pham X C, Nguyen T T H, Nguyen V L, Duong T T T. Application of multimedia methodology for investigation of karst water in highland regions of Ha Giang Province, Vietnam[J]. Environmental Earth Sciences, 2013, 70(2): 531-542. doi: 10.1007/s12665-013-2617-3
[32]	Nguyet V, Thanh V P, Hai V D, Roi N D, Tra D. Hydrogeochemical characterization and groundwater quality of the dong giao karst aquifer in Tam Diep, Ninh Binh, Vietnam[J]. Acta Carsolocica, 2016, 45(3): 233-242.
[33]	Limbert H. Caving in the nineties, Vietnam[J]. Caves & Caving, 1991, 52: 2-4.
[34]	Limbert H. The caves of Phong Nha & Hang Toi, Quang Binh Province, Vietnam[J]. International Caver, 1992, 2: 4-9.
[35]	Limbert H. Vietnam 1992: Return to the river caves of Quang Binh[J]. International Caver, 1992, 5: 19-25.
[36]	Limbert H. Vietnam—a caver's paradise[J]. International Caver, 1994, 12: 3-11.
[37]	Limbert H. The 1994 British/Vietnamese speleological expedition report[M]. 1995.
[38]	Limbert H. Vietnam' 97[J]. International Caver, 1997, 20: 11-18.
[39]	Limbert H. Vietnam 99[J]. Caves and Caving, 1999, 85: 24-27.
[40]	Limbert H, Limbert D. A caving reconnaissance to Vietnam & Laos[J]. International Caver, 1996, 16: 27-32.
[41]	Limbert H, Limbert D. Vietnam' 99. Cao Bang & Quang Binh[J]. International Caver, 1999, 25: 3-12.
[42]	Carrieri G. Cao Bang 94. La prima spedizione speleo italiana in Vietnam[J]. Speleologia, 1995, 32: 92-100.
[43]	Carrieri G. Cao Bang '95. Ⅱ. spedizione speleo in Vietnam[J]. Grotte, 1995, 119: 34-52.
[44]	Cholin A. Explorations franco-italienne dans la province de Cao Bang, Vietnam[M]. Actes 11éme colloque de la spéléologie d'expédition, Spelunca Mémoires, 1997, 22: 97-100.
[45]	Layton C, Jeffries H, Warild A. Caving in Vietnam[J]. Australian Caver, 1998, 143: 3-6.
[46]	Clucas D, Laumanns M. Vietnam. Cave documentation project [M]. Descent, 2010, 214: 27.
[47]	Laumanns M. Vietnam. Explorations spéléologiques dans le Sud du Vietnam[M]. Spelunca, 2010, 119: 5.
[48]	Masschelein J, Coessens V, Lagrou D, Dusar M, Van T T. Northern Vietnam 1993–2006 Belgian-Vietnamese speleological projects in the provinces of Bac Kan, Ha Giang, Hoa Binh, Lai Chau and SonLa[M]. Berliner Hohlenkundliche Berichte, 2007, 22: 212.
[49]	Long V T, Du H V. Zoological species belonging to the Pleistocene and the geochronology of sedimentscontaining them in caves and grottoes in Northern Viet Nam[J]. Khao Co Hoc, 1981, 1: 16-19.
[50]	Long V T, de Vos J, Ciochon R S. The fossil mammal fauna of the Lang Trang caves, Vietnam, compared with Southeast Asian fossil and recent mammal faunas: The geographical implications[J]. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 1996, 14: 101-109.
[51]	Shear W A. A new genus and specis of callipodidan milliped from Vietnam (Callipodida, Schizopetalidae)[J]. Virginia Mus, of Nat. History, 2000, 6(11): 95-100.
[52]	Gurm J. Encyclopedia of caves and karst science[M]. London: Routledge, 2004.
[53]	Juberthie Chr, Decu V. Encyclopaedia Biospelologica[M]. Moulis: Société de Biospéologie, 2001.
[54]	Deharveng L, Le Cong Kiet, Man L C. Hot issues in karst conservation: The biodiversity of Hon Chong hills (Southern Vietnam), with emphasis on invertebrate endemism[C]//International Transdisciplinary Conference on Development and Conservation of Karst Regions, Hanoi Vietnam, 2004: 40.
[55]	Vermeulen J J, Phung L C, Truong Q T. New species of terrestrial mollusces (Caenogastropoda, Pupinidae & Pulmonata, Vertiginidae) of the Hon Chong–Ha Tien limestone hils,Southern Vietnam[J]. Basteria, 2007, 71: 81-92.
[56]	Bacon A M, Demeter F, Schuster M, Long V T, Thuy N K, Antoine P O, Sen S, Nga H H, Huong N M. The Pleistocene of Ma U'Oi cave,Northern Vietnam: Palaeontology sedimentology and palaeoenvironments[J]. Geobios, 2004, 37: 305-314.
[57]	Demeter F, Bacon A M, Thuy N K, Long V T, Matsumura H, Nga H H, Schuster M, Huong N M, Coppens Y. An archaic Homo molar from Northern Vietnam[J]. Current Anthropology, 2004, 45(4): 535-541.
[58]	Demeter F, Bacon A M, Thuy N K, Long V T, Duringer P, Roussé S, Coppens Y, Matsumura H, Dodo Y, Mai H N. Discovery of a second human molar and cranium fragment in the Late Pleistocene cave of Ma U'Oi (Northern Vietnam) [J]. Journal of Human Evolution, 2005, 48: 393-402.
[59]	Hutchison C. Geological evolution of Southeast Asia[M]. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
[60]	Tong Dzuy Thanh, Vu Khuc. The stratigraphy of Vietnam[M]. Netherlands: Verenigde Nederlandse Uitgeversbedrijven, 2006
[61]	Le Van De. Outline of plate-tectonic evolution of continental crust of Vietnam[C]//Dheeradilok P. Proceedings of the International Conferences on Stratigraphy and Tectoinc Evolution of Southeast Asia and the South Pacific, 1997: 832-847.
[62]	Tapponnier P, Peltzer G, Armijo R. On the mechanics of the collision between India and Asia. In: Coward MP, Ries AC (eds). Collision tectonics[M]. 1986: 115-157.
[63]	Cai J X, Zhang K J. A new model for the Indochina and South China collision during the Late Permian to the Middle Triassic[J]. Tectonophysics, 2009, 467: 35-43. doi: 10.1016/j.tecto.2008.12.003
[64]	Tran Thanh Hai. Deformational features of Northeastern Vietnam. In: Tran Van Tri, Vu Khuc (eds). Geology and natural resources of Vietnam[M]. Natural Sciences and Technology Publishing House, 2009: 408−415.
[65]	Hai T T, Dang B V, Chi K N, Que D H, Nguyen Q M. Structural controls on the occurrence and morphology of karstified assemblages in Northeastern Vietnam: A regional perspec-tive[J]. Environmental Earth Sciences, 2011, 70(2): 511-520.
[66]	Metcalfe I. Permian tectonic framework and paleogeography of SE Asia[J]. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 2002, 20(6): 551-566. doi: 10.1016/S1367-9120(02)00022-6
[67]	Carter A, Roques D, Bristow C, Kinny P. Understanding Mesozoic accretion in Southeast Asia: Significance of Triassic thermotectonism (Indosinian orogeny) in Vietnam[J]. Geology, 2001, 29: 211-214.
[68]	Lepvrier C, Vuong N V, Maluski H, Thi P T, Vu T V. Indosinian tectonics in Vietnam[J]. Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 2008, 340: 9211.
[69]	Nakano N, Osanai Y, Owada M, Nam T N, Toyoshima T, Binh P, Tsunogae T, Kagami H. Geologic and metamorphic evolution of the basement complexes in the Kontum Massif, central Vietnam[J]. Gondwana Research, 2007, 12: 438-453.
[70]	Tran Duc Luong, Nguyen Xuan Bao. Geological map of continental part of Vietnam, 1:1,500,000[Z]. Socialist Republic of Vietnam General Department of Geology, 1986.
[71]	Tran Van Tri. Geological map of Vietnam, 1:1,000,000[Z]. General Department of Mines and Geology of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, 1973.
[72]	王宏, 林方成, 李兴振, 施美凤. 老挝及邻区构造单元划分与构造演化[J]. 中国地质, 2015, 42(1):71-84. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-3657.2015.01.006 WANG Hong, LIN Fangcheng, LI Xingzhen, SHI Meifeng. The division of tectonic units and tectonic evolution in Laos and its adjacent regions[J]. Geology in China, 2015, 42(1): 71-84. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-3657.2015.01.006
[73]	吴良士. 越南社会主义共和国地质构造与区域成矿[J]. 矿床地质, 2009, 28(5):725-726.
[74]	Vietnam Meteorological and Hydrological Administration. National Center for Hydro-meteorological Forecasting. https://nchmf.gov.vn/KttvsiteE/en-US/2/index.html.
[75]	Averyanov L, Hiep N T, Loc P K. Flora and vegetation of areas allied to Phong Nha-Ke Bang[M]. Germany: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, 2012.
[76]	Phong Nha-Ke Bang national park. United Nations Environment Programme and World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Vietnam. 2011.
[77]	Nguyen Q M. Karst in Vietnam[R]. Department of Geography and Geology Internal Report, 1992.
[78]	Denneborg M, Laumanns M, Schnadwinkel M, Voigt S. German speleological campaign Cambodia 95/96[J]. Berliner Hohlenkundliche Berichte, 2002, 6: 87.
[79]	Dusar M, Zhang S Y. Geological and speleological reconnaissance of the east Yunnan karst (P.R.China)[M]. Brussels, Belgium: Ministerie van Economische Zaken, Belgische Geologische Dienst, 1991.
[80]	Ha P V, Van T T, Tin Q D, Ho H H, Nguyen D T, Nguyen Q H. Geoheritage values of the Dong Van Karst Plateau Geopark: A quantitative geomorphological and topographic analysis[J]. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, 2013, 59: 13-17.
[81]	Huu N D, Huong D T. Outcrop of dolomite in lower part of Dong Giao Formation, NW Vietnam[J]. Vietnam Journal of Geology, 2012, 329: 46-55.
[82]	Tuyet D, Tuy P K, Ke T D. Karst geology research in the Northwest[M]. Archives Institute of Geosciences and Mineral Resources, 1998
[83]	Laumanns M, Piece L. Atlas of the Great Caves and the Karst of Southeast Asia, Part 2: Myanmar-Vietnam[M]. Berlin, Germany: Berliner Hohlenkundliche Berichte, 2010.
[84]	https:// www.vietnamcaves.org.
[85]	Limbert H, Limbert D, Nguyen Hieu, Phái V V, Bac D K. Significant discoveries in the cave systems of Phong Nha−Ke Bang National park from 2003 to 2013[R]. Hanoi University of Science, VNU, 2013.
[86]	Limbert H, Limbert D, Hieu N, Phái V V, Bac D K, Phuong T H, Granger D. The discovery and exploration of Hang Son Doong[J]. Boletín Geológico y Minero, 2016, 127(1): 165-176.
[87]	Limbert H. Vietnam 2009: A joint British and Vietnamese caving expedition[R]. 2009.
[88]	Coessens V. Vietnam-Expedition logs Cong Nuoc as new deepest cave[J]. Descent, 2002, 165: 24-25.
[89]	Masschelein J. Expedition Belgo-vietnamienne: -600 m pour le Cong Nuoc. Le Vietnam, une couleur souterraine[J]. Spéléo, 2002, 41: 8.
[90]	A D Bank. Viet Nam-Environment and Climate Change Assessment[M]. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2013.
[91]	Lam N V, Ngoc N K, Hoan H V, Tuan T Q, Nga N T. Characteristics of groundwater in karstic region in Northeastern Vietnam[J]. Environmental Earth Sciences, 2013, 70(2): 501-510.
[92]	Van Q N, Duc T T, Van H D. Landscapes and ecosystems of tropical limestone: Case study of the Cat Ba Islands, Vietnam[J]. Journal of Ecology and Field Biology, 2010, 33(1): 23-36.
[93]	Govers P D G. Rural development in mountain karst areas of NW Vietnam by subtainable water and land management and social learning: Its conditions and facilitations[R].1998.
[94]	Van T T, Trung N D, Tuat L T. Potential and progress of geopark development in Vietnam[C]//Proceedings of International Symposium on Geology, Natural Resources and Hazards in Karst Regions, 2009: 117-129.
[95]	https://halongbay.com.vn/.
[96]	http://trangandanhthang.vn/.
[97]	https://phongnhakebang.vn/.
[98]	An L D, Khanh U D. Karst geomorphologic heritage of Dong Van-Meo Vac plateau: Valuable tourism resources[C]//Proceedings of International Symposium on Geology, Natural Resources and Hazards in Karst Regions, 2009: 65-67.
[99]	http://dongvangeopark.com/.
[100]	http://caobanggeopark.com/.
[101]	http://www.babenationalpark.com.vn/.
[102]	Phuong T H, Cu N H, Thanh T D, Dong B V. Geoheritage values in the Cat Ba islands, Vietnam[J]. Environmental Earth Sciences, 2013, 70(2): 543-548.
[103]	https://catbanationalpark.vn.
[104]	Imrich K. Mineral resources of Vietnam[J]. Acta Montanistica Slovaca, 2000, 2: 165-172.
[105]	Le T X. Geology and mineral resources of Vietnam[M]. Vietnam: Department of Geology and Minerals of Vietnam, 1988: 217.